Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry

Antibacterial Activity of the Tender Leaf, Stem Bark and Root Extracts of Guizotia Scabra against Streptococci Bacteria Using Bioassay

2026-03-16T07:56:06Z

Antibacterial Activity of the Tender Leaf, Stem Bark and Root Extracts of Guizotia Scabra against Streptococci Bacteria Using Bioassay Paul, Anjeline Jepchumba; Lagat, Grace; Lutta, Samuel Dental caries remains a major public health concern globally, largely attributed to bacterial pathogens such as Streptococcus mutans and Streptococcus sobrinus. The search for plant-based alternatives to synthetic oral care products has intensified in recent years. This study evaluated the antibacterial activity of ethanol and acetone extracts of Guizotia scabra leaf, stem bark and root against these key oral pathogens in comparison with commercial toothpastes. The ethanol leaf extract exhibited the highest activity against Streptococcus mutans with an inhibition zone of 5.0 mm (62.5%), followed by the root extract (3.0 mm, 37.5%) and stem extract (2.0 mm, 25.0%). Against Streptococcus sobrinus., the ethanol leaf extract recorded 4.0 mm (50.0%), root extract 2.5 mm (31.25%), and stem extract 1.5 mm (18.75%). Similarly, the acetone leaf extract demonstrated the highest inhibition against Streptococcus mutans (4.6 mm, 57.5%) and Streptococcus sobrinus. (4.3 mm, 53.75%), compared to the root extract (2.8 mm, 35.0%; 2.3 mm, 28.75%) and stem extract (1.9 mm, 23.75%; 1.7 mm, 21.25%). In contrast, commercial toothpaste brand 1 produced inhibition zones of 6.0 mm (75.0%) against both pathogens, while brand 2 showed 7.0 mm (87.5%) against Streptococcus mutans and 6.0mm (75.0%) against Streptococcus sobrinus. These findings demonstrate that Guizotia scabra extracts possess significant antibacterial activity, with leaf extracts showing the greatest potential. Although commercial toothpastes were more effective likely due to fluoride and other active ingredients. The results highlight the potential of Guizotia scabra as a natural complementary agent for dental caries prevention. Future research should explore its integration with fluoride or other natural antibacterials to enhance its efficacy. Keywords: Antibacterial Activity, Guizotia scabra, Streptococcus mutans & Streptococcus sobrinus bacteria, Bioassay.

ANTIOXIDANT AND ANTIDIABETIC PROPERTIES OF Mondia whitei ROOT EXTRACT IN STREPTOZOTOCIN-INDUCED DIABETIC WISTAR RATS

2026-03-13T10:22:01Z

ANTIOXIDANT AND ANTIDIABETIC PROPERTIES OF Mondia whitei ROOT EXTRACT IN STREPTOZOTOCIN-INDUCED DIABETIC WISTAR RATS GITAU, KENNEDY KAMAU The rising global prevalence of diabetes mellitus (DM) and its complications presents a major health challenge and is exacerbated by the lack of a definitive cure and the side effects of existing treatments, thus, highlighting the need for safer and more sustainable anti-diabetic agents. This study investigated Mondia whitei root extract as an alternative therapeutic option for DM. While traditional medicine suggests that M. whitei possesses antioxidant and anti-diabetic properties, scientific validation is limited. This research aimed to address this gap. Qualitative phytochemicals analysis of crude root extract of M. whitei was done and it’s in vitro antioxidant properties evaluated through 2,2- diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging activity and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assays. DM was induced in twenty-four male Wistar rats by a single intraperitoneal injection of 65 mg/Kg body weight (bwt) of streptozotocin (STZ). Animals were randomly assigned to five groups each containing six subjects; Group I (normal control, saline), Group II (diabetic control, saline), Group III (diabetic rats 200 mg/Kg bwt extract treatment), Group IV (diabetic rats 400 mg/Kg bwt extract treatment), and Group V (diabetic rats 100 mg/Kg bwt metformin treatment). Treatments were orally administered for 21 days. Fasting body weights and blood sugar levels were measured weekly. After 21 days, animals were sacrificed and their blood and liver tissue samples collected followed by serum lipid profile, liver and kidney function indices analysis. Liver malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were measured, and liver and plasma’s ferric-reducing capacity were evaluated. Statistical analysis was performed using R software, with paired Student’s t-test and ANOVA determining statistical significance at 95% confidence level. The qualitative phytochemical analysis of the crude M. whitei root extract revealed the presence of saponins, phenols, tannins, alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, coumarins, steroids, and terpenoids, while anthraquinones were not detected. The extract significantly scavenged DPPH radical and reduced ferric ions in vitro. M. whitei also showed significant hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic and significantly reduced serum gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP). M. whitei treatment also significantly increased liver and blood plasma capacity to reduce ferric ions as well as protected liver tissues from lipid peroxidation as indicated by significantly reduced levels of MDA. However, M. whitei showed no significant serum urea and creatinine levels decrease. In conclusion, the phytochemical-rich M. whitei root extract demonstrated anti-diabetic, antioxidant, hypolipidemic and hepatoprotective effects in STZ-induced diabetic rats, highlighting its potential as a natural candidate for the management of DM and its complications.

Fluoride distribution in selected foodstuffs from Nakuru County, Kenya, and the risk factors for its human overexposure

2026-03-06T06:23:28Z

Fluoride distribution in selected foodstuffs from Nakuru County, Kenya, and the risk factors for its human overexposure Nelima, Delphine; Wambu, Enos W.; Kituyi, John L. Critical data on the impacts of fluoride (F) in food systems along the Eastern Africa Rift Valley System (EARS) is needed for public health risk assessment and for the development of strategies for ameliorating its deleterious effects among the affected communities. Long-term F overexposure causes dental and skeletal fluorosis, and leads to neurotoxicity, which impacts several important body functions. Investigating F exposure pathways is of essence to inform and safeguard public health of the affected communities. The current study assessed the F levels in potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.), beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and garden peas (Possum sativa) from Nakuru County, Kenya, by potentiometric analysis using F ion-selective electrodes. It then evaluated the risk factors for excessive human exposure to F through contaminated foodstuffs. The mean F levels in the potatoes (8.50 ± 4.70 mg/kg), beans (8.02 ± 4.12 mg/kg) and peas (4.99 ± 1.25 mg/kg) exceeded recommended dietary allowances (RDA) level of 4 mg/kg endorsed by US Institute of Medicine for the different categories of people. The F distribution trends in beans and potatoes reflected the environmental patterns of F contamination of the study area but the spatial extent Fin the peas indicated existence of partial resistance of the pea plants to environmental F uptake. The results indicated that both the beans and the potatoes were more liable to accumulating greater amounts of F from the environment than garden peas and that all the three foodstuffs contained high F levels that posed greater risk of F overexposure and its deleterious impacts among the young children, male populations, and in people of greater body weight and high physical activity levels.

Antioxidant and Antidiabetic Effects of Mondia whitei Root Extract in Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetic Wistar Rats

2025-12-10T09:49:06Z

Antioxidant and Antidiabetic Effects of Mondia whitei Root Extract in Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetic Wistar Rats Gitau, Kennedy K.; et. al... Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by persistent hyperglycemia and is a major contributor to global morbidity and mortality. Although Mondia whitei has been traditionally used for its antidiabetic and antioxidant effects, scientific evidence supporting these claims remains limited. This study aimed to evaluate the therapeutic potential of Mondia whitei root extract in a streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic Wistar rat model. Phytochemical screening of M. whitei root extract revealed the presence of saponins, phenols, flavonoids, tannins, alkaloids, glycosides, coumarins, steroids, and terpenoids. Antioxidant activity was assessed using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assays. DM was induced with 65 mg/kg body weight STZ. Rats were grouped into normal control, diabetic control, 200 mg/kg extract, 400 mg/kg extract, and 100 mg/kg metformin treated groups. Treatments were administered orally for 21 days. Fasting blood sugar (FBS) and body weight were measured weekly. At termination, blood and liver tissues were collected for analysis. M. whitei extract exhibited strong antioxidant activity in vitro. The 400 mg/kg dose significantly reduced FBS levels, nearing metformin’s hypoglycemic effect when compared to diabetic control. The extract also significantly lowered serum gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), lipids, and malondialdehyde (MDA), while increasing FRAP values in liver and plasma while serum creatinine and urea levels were reduced, though not significantly. The phytochemical-rich M. whitei root extract showed significant antidiabetic, antioxidant, hypolipidemic, and hepatoprotective activities, supporting its potential as a natural alternative for managing DM and its complications.

ENVIRONMENTAL OCCURRENCE AND ECOTOXICOLOGICAL RISKS OF CONTAMINANTS OF EMERGING CONCERN IN THE RIVER ATHI BASIN, KENYA: ANALYTICAL AND KINETIC ADSORPTION STUDIES USING AGRICULTURAL WASTE BIOCHARS

2025-05-27T10:15:07Z

ENVIRONMENTAL OCCURRENCE AND ECOTOXICOLOGICAL RISKS OF CONTAMINANTS OF EMERGING CONCERN IN THE RIVER ATHI BASIN, KENYA: ANALYTICAL AND KINETIC ADSORPTION STUDIES USING AGRICULTURAL WASTE BIOCHARS CHEBII, FAITH JELAGAT Globally, the environmental occurrence of Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs) including Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (APIs), Personal Care Products (PCPs) and pesticides has raised ecological and human health concerns. However, as the developed world make efforts to establish regulatory measures to mitigate their effects, developing nations including Kenya are lagging, partly due to unavailability of adequate data. Remediation of CECs in water can be achieved via photodegradation, advanced oxidation process, bioremediation, chemical degradation and activated carbon utilization. Adsorption, a cheaper and convenient alternative using the available agricultural wastes products, as biosorbent materials have not been fully explored. The objectives of this study were to determine multi-class CECs load and concentrations, determine ecotoxicological risks towards algae, Daphnia magna and fish, and potential point-of-use technologies via adsorption using Rice Husk Biochar (RHB), Avocado Seed Biochar (ASB)and Banana Peel Biochar (BPB). Water samples were collected from 24 sites across the River Athi basin area, Kenya. Extraction of water samples was done using Solid-Phase Extraction (SPE) and the CECs were analyzed using Ultra-High-Performance Liquid Chromatography coupled to High Resolution Orbitrap Mass Spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS). The equilibrium adsorption isotherm studies were conducted for 86 CECs using ASB, BPB and RHB and the data was correlated using the non-linear curves of Langmuir and Freundlich rate equations. RHB was used in the adsorption kinetic studies for 86 CECs and the kinetic data acquired were correlated with the non-linear curves of Pseudo-First Order (PFO), Pseudo Second Order (PSO), Elovich and the Weber-Morris intraparticle diffusion models. The fitting performance of each model onto the kinetic data was guaranteed using adjusted R2 and the chi square values. The results of this analysis indicated that 57 CECs comprising 31APIs (0.4 ng L-1 – 142 µg L-1), 6 PCPs (0.7 – 570 ng L-1) and 20 pesticides (0.3 ng L-1 – 8.3 µg L-1) were detected. The maximum loads varied from 217 g day-1 (APIs) to 46 g day-1 (PCPs). Individually, Carbamazepine, Nevirapine, Sulfamethoxazole and DEET were the most ubiquitous CECs, with detection frequencies (DF) higher than 80%. The highest concentrations were observed at river sites that are heavily impacted by informal settlements, highlighting the critical role of slums in pollution of urban rivers. At least 8 CECs including Acetamiprid, Alachlor, Atrazine, Diuron, Nevirapine and Paracetamol showed potential risk to algae, Daphnia magna and fish, as exemplified by Risk Quotients (RQ) up to 174. Similarly, potential risk of antibiotic resistant bacteria development is evident due to exposure to Metronidazole, Sulfamethoxazole and Trimethoprim (RQ up to 64). Comparison of removal efficiencies of the CECs using the ASB, BPB and RHB showed that ASB and RHB had impressive % Removal efficiencies (94.0% - 98% and 87% - 99%) respectively compared to BPB (87% -93%). The lower %RE (% Removal Efficiencies) at lower concentrations for all the selected biochars is attributed to formation of bulky water clusters which may not be accommodated in the micropores on the surfaces of the biochars. The adsorption mechanism may be attributed to π-π electron donor- acceptor interaction, pore filling, ionic interactions and hydrogen bonding between the CECs molecules and the surfaces of the biochars. The kinetic adsorption analysis revealed that the kinetic data acquired for virtually 80% of the compounds were best described by the Elovich kinetic model, indicating that chemisorption was more pronounced on a heterogenous adsorbent surface as to physisorption and the intra – particle diffusion mechanisms. The R2 values approached unity and low Chi-square values approached zero. The equilibrium isotherm data fitted well both with Langmuir and Freundlich models with R2 approaching unity in most instances. However, Freundlich model had higher rate constants as to Langmuir models, an indicator that adsorption process was best described with a multilayer structure than the monolayer. There is a need to sensitize communities in informal settlements on proper waste disposal methods and the government agencies should include CECs in their monitoring schedule. ASB and RHB should be considered in the development of point-of-u

Removal of Selected Heavy Metals from the Water of the River Sosiani in Uasin Gishu County Using Cynodon dactylon (Couch Grass)

2025-05-12T07:36:23Z

Removal of Selected Heavy Metals from the Water of the River Sosiani in Uasin Gishu County Using Cynodon dactylon (Couch Grass) Lelei, Kiptoo Richard; Kipkemboi, Pius; Lutta, Samuel The management of heavy metal pollution in rivers is a growing concern due to the rapid pace of industrialization and urbanization. Rivers are especially susceptible to heavy metal contamination due to various human activities, such as industrial processes, agricultural runoff, mining operations and improper waste disposal. Several studies in Kenya have documented the alarming presence of elevated heavy metal levels in various rivers, raising concerns about environmental and public health impacts. A variety of methods and techniques have been developed and implemented to remove heavy metals from contaminated water however, several of these techniques are expensive. The potential of plants to serve as a bio adsorbent offers a sustainable solution for addressing heavy metal pollution in rivers. This research therefore investigated the efficacy of modified Cynodon dactylon grass as an adsorbent for removing lead (Pb²⁺), manganese (Mn²⁺), cadmium (Cd²⁺) and chromium (Cr⁶⁺) ions from Sosiani River water. Water samples were collected from three purposively selected sites along the Sosiani River in Uasin Gishu County, Kenya and the mean heavy metal concentrations were analysed using Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS). The batch adsorption experiments were conducted in triplicates for untreated and treated grass. The study also examined the impact of pH levels on adsorption by testing at pH levels of 5, 7 and 9. Data was coded into SPSS software version 20 and analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The results indicate that the mean concentration of Cr⁶⁺ and Pb²⁺ in the water samples were 1.49 mg/L and 1.61 mg/L respectively. Both metals ions exceeding the NEMA guideline. However, the concentration of Cd²⁺ and Mn²⁺ was found to be 0.002 mg/L and 0.05 mg/L which is below the NEMA recommended level. Further, the heavy metal concentrations in Sosiani River water samples varied significantly (p<0.05) across different locations. Also, the chemically treated Cyanodon dactylon grass exhibited a higher percentage of adsorption across all tested heavy metals compared to the untreated Cyanodonat pH 5 compared to pH 9. These findings demonstrate the potential of Cynodon dactylon grass as an effective and more accessible alternative for river water purification. Further research is needed to optimize the conditions and modifications for enhanced adsorption performance. dactylon grass. Lastly, there was a higher adsorption efficiency for treated adsorbent

Occurrence and environmental risks of contaminants of emerging concern across the River Athi Basin, Kenya, in dry and wet seasons

2025-04-23T08:58:38Z

Occurrence and environmental risks of contaminants of emerging concern across the River Athi Basin, Kenya, in dry and wet seasons Chebii, Faith; et. al... Globally, the environmental occurrence of Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs) including pharmaceuticals (PhACs), personal care products (PCPs) and modern polar pesticides has raised ecological and human health awareness. However, as the developed world races against time to establish regulatory measures to mitigate their effects, developing nations including Kenya are lagging behind, partly due to unavailability of adequate data. In this work, a multi-residue analysis of 86 CECs was carried out on 198 surface water and 18 effluent samples collected at 24 sites across the River Athi basin area, Kenya, in both dry and rainy seasons. Overall, 57 CECs comprising 31 PhACs (0.4 ng L− 1 –142 μg L− 1 ), 6 PCPs (0.7–570 ng L− 1 ) and 20 pesticides (0.3 ng L− 1 –8.3 μg L− 1 ) were detected. The maximum loads varied from 217 g day− 1 (PCPs) to 46 kg day− 1 (PhACs). Individually, carbamazepine, nevirapine, sulfamethoxazole and DEET were the most ubiquitous CECs, with detection frequencies (DF) higher than 80 %. The highest concentrations were observed at river sites that are heavily impacted by informal settlements, highlighting the critical role of slums in urban rivers pollution. At least 8 CECs including acetamiprid, alachlor, atrazine, diuron, nevirapine and paracetamol show potential risk to algae, Daphnia magna and fish, as exemplified by Risk Quotients (RQ) up to 174. Similarly, potential risk of antibiotic resistant bacteria development is evident (RQ up to 64), being driven by metronidazole, sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim. Ultimately, further studies on the occurrence and distribution of antibiotic resistant bacteria within the basin and among the communities consuming untreated river water for drinking is merited.

HEAVY METALS IN WATER, SOIL AND PUMPKIN (Cucurbita maxima) LEAVES FROM SHIYALU-LURAMBI AREA KAKAMEGA COUNTY KENYA: CONTAMINATION LEVELS AND SPECIATION ANALYSIS

2025-04-08T09:52:56Z

HEAVY METALS IN WATER, SOIL AND PUMPKIN (Cucurbita maxima) LEAVES FROM SHIYALU-LURAMBI AREA KAKAMEGA COUNTY KENYA: CONTAMINATION LEVELS AND SPECIATION ANALYSIS NEKESA, DOREEN MESO Pollution of the environment by heavy metals is a major global concern. Arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn) present the greatest environmental threat because of their widest distribution and known toxic effects in humans, plants, animals and lower biota. The study was designed to assess the level of selected heavy metals in potable water, soils and Pumpkin leaves (Cucurbita maxima) samples to determine their availability and potential accumulation along the food chain. Samples for the field investigation were collected from randomly selected sites, transported to the research laboratory where they were treated and analyzed for Cd, Pb, Ni, Cu, and Zn using Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS). Arsenic was determined calorimetrically using Arsenic Test Kit (ATK). Inductive coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) was used to perform speciation studies for Cd and Pb in soil samples. It was found that whereas the As, Ni, Cu, and Zn concentrations in water, soil and plants were well within the respective World Health Organization (WHO) limits, both the Pb and Cd levels water (Pb -0.0925-0.5680 Cd -0.3911-0.5541); soil (Pb -1.2252-1.9279; Cd -0.6153- 0.7674-) and plants (Pb -1.0482-1.3892); Cd 0.1070-0.11833) respectively exceeded the permissible WHO standards for studied media, respectively. The Soil Pb and Cd were present in the bioavailable exchangeable fractions (0.42 mg/kg, 0.21 mg/kg) and reducible fraction (0.99 mg/kg, 0.28 mg/kg), respectively. Lead (Pb) and Cd in the soils posed significant risk of overexposure because of their high levels and speciation resulting in bioaccumulation and magnification in the plant tissues investigated. Because the overall toxic consequences of excessive exposure to these metals, it is recommended that the levels of heavy metals in plants, water, and soil in the affected areas need to be routinely assessed and measures taken to avert potential environmental and public health damage.

BACTERIOLOGICAL QUALITY OF FRESH MEAT SOLD WITHIN ELDORET TOWN

2025-04-02T09:55:06Z

BACTERIOLOGICAL QUALITY OF FRESH MEAT SOLD WITHIN ELDORET TOWN KOECH, EDWIN CHERUIYOT Meat is the primary source of proteins in many parts of Africa. In many cases however, it is major point of entry of many zoonotic diseases. Further, due to the long and many procedures involved in the meat industry, it is also implicated with many diseases associated with poor hygiene. The present study was carried out to assess the general microbiological quality of meat (beef, chevon and mutton) sold in Eldoret Town of Uasin Gishu County. The objectives of the study were; to investigate the physiological conditions of the meat, assessing the bacterial load of the meat, and biochemical characterization of selected bacterial pathogens found on the meat. Five major abattoirs were sampled for this study; Kaburwo in Langas, Maili Nne in Huruma, Cyrus in Munyaka, Eldoret main, and Teresia in Moiben representing all the major peri-urban centres of the Town. Five butcheries in the town were also selected for the study. The pH and temperatures of the carcasses were the physiological parameters measured and were recorded at the sampling sites. Meat samples were aseptically collected and taken in sterile bags and kept at 4˚C. One gram of each meat sample was mixed with 0.4 ml of 0.1% of buffered peptone water for 2 minutes. Serial dilutions were carried out and followed by plating via pour plate technique. The plates were incubated for 24 hrs at 37 ˚C after which total plate count was done to determine the bacterial load of the meat samples. Biochemical typing was done on pure isolates to determine the presence of Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Proteus vulgaris. PH values ranged from 5.5 to 6.77 with the pH of the meat obtained from butchery consistently registering low values compared to the ones from the abattoirs. Temperatures of the carcasses ranged from 23 ˚C to 26.95 ˚C. The lowest temperatures were obtained from the carcasses from Teresia abattoir. Statistical analysis of variance was used to determine level of signifance between the microbial load and factors; temperature and PH on meat sample collected. Correlation regression analysis was used to determine the influence of the physiological factors measured on the numbers of colony forming units(cfus). Statistical analysis was done using Ms Excel 2013. The meat in all the samples sites were found to be of poor bacteriological quality as the bacterial load was found to be higher than the recommended levels. The highest bacterial load was found in the carcasses in the butchery with an average of 19.8 cfus g/ml while the lowest was from the Maili Nne abattoir with an average of 4.9 cfus g/ml. Among the abattoirs, Teresia had the highest bacterial load of 9.2 cfus. Temperature was found to be positively correlated with cfu albeit weak (0.177) while pH was negatively correlated with the same (-0.478). Staphyloccocus aureus was the major pathogenic bacteria isolated from all the carcasses being at 26% of the isolated bacteria. Proteus vulgaris was at 11% and Escherichia coli at 8%. These differed from one sampling site to another but the order of abundance remained uniform. More public health education on the appropriate hygienic practices ought to be rolled out to help achieve a better microbiological quality status of the meat sold in Eldoret Municipality.

A systematic review of Datura stramonium as a potential biocide for mosquito control

2025-02-14T06:40:26Z

A systematic review of Datura stramonium as a potential biocide for mosquito control Okumu, Naomi; et. al... Global burden of malaria reduction has been significantly slowed down by malaria vectors developing resistance to conventional chemical pesticides currently in use. Anopheles mosquitoes, which are malaria vectors, have over time developed coping mechanisms which can enable them to detoxify poisonous chemical pesticides meant to kill them consequently threatening the effectiveness of such control measures. Coupled with the danger of the chemical pesticides on the environment, attention is shifting to natural products that would successfully control malaria vectors particularly those that have developed bacteria-mediated resistance to conventional pesticides currently in use. A web-based literature search using scientific databases was explored to find data on the insecticidal and antibacterial properties of Datura stramonium. This was prompted by a dearth of information on alternative bio-pesticides that are cost-effective, eco-friendly, and with high toxicity on vectors. This review evaluated the potential of extracts of D. stramonium in different solvents as a biocide. A lot of research on D. stramonium extracts has focused more on its potential as a medicinal plant rather than as a biocide. This review outlines research evidence that D. stramonium has phytochemicals and bioactive compounds which are antibacterial, insecticidal, and anti-malarial. Not much studies have been done with Anopheles gambiae of confirmed resistance and its inhibition effect on mosquito bacterial community is not fully understood.