http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/29 2026-04-06T09:42:28Z 2026-04-06T09:42:28Z Murere, JF Wangila, S. Koech, J. http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2564 2026-03-26T13:36:46Z 2025-06-01T00:00:00Z

Detection and classification of cervical cancer disease among women using machine learning technique Model in Western Kenya. Murere, JF; Wangila, S.; Koech, J. Cervical cancer is the leading cause of cancer related deaths among Kenyan women, claiming approximately the lives of 3,200 women annually. This is primarily due to the low screening uptake (16%) and late diagnosis. The aim of this study was to develop a machine leaning based model to enhance early detection of cervical cancer in Western Kenya, a region in Kenya with limited healthcare resources. Demographic, reproductive, and clinical characteristics data were collected from 968 women across health facilities in western Kenya (MTRH and Kakamega Referral hospital) utilizing a cross sectional study design. The dataset was divided into training set (70%) and testing set (30%). The training set was used to develop the five machine learning model: Logistic Regression, Random Forest, Decision Tree, Support Vector Machine (SVM), and Artificial Neural Network (ANN). The testing set was used to evaluate the models. The machine learning model were trained to classify the cervical cancer cases, addressing the class imbalances using class weighting method for SVM, decision tree, random forest and logit model and synthetic minority oversampling class technique (SMOTE) for ANN. The random forest model demonstrated the superior performance compared to the other four models as it achieved the highest accuracy (94.33%) and specificity (98.37%) making it to be highly effective at ruling out negative cases. It however had a sensitivity of 20% which indicated that it had challenges in detecting positive cases. The logistic regression model excelled in sensitivity (70%) making it suitable for initial screening. ANN model showed the lowest precision (10%). The findings from this study suggested that a two-step approach which combine both Logistic Regression for screening and Random Forest for confirmation of cervical cancer cases which will go a long way in improving early detection and reduce cervical cancer mortality in resource-constrained settings like Western Kenya.

2025-06-01T00:00:00Z SANG, JANETH http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2553 2026-03-24T08:20:35Z 2025-01-01T00:00:00Z

CHARACTERIZATION OF SELECTED KENYAN COWPEA CULTIVARS FOR TOLERANCE TO ACIDITY SANG, JANETH Acid soils are normally deficient in available phosphorus and have high levels of soluble aluminium. Crops vary in sensitivity to acidity and associated stresses. Kenyan varieties of cowpea have not been tested for tolerance to acidity and phosphorus deficiency. This study was conducted to assess the response of selected cowpea cultivars to acidity and aluminium stress under laboratory and field conditions. A total of nine cowpea cultivars namely UOE-COWPEA-1, UOE-COWPEA-2, UOE-COWPEA-3, UOE-COWPEA-4, UOE-COWPEA-5, KENKUNDE-1, K-80, M-66 and KVU-27-1, were screened in culture solution containing 0 µM and 185 µM AlCl 3 at a pH of 4.3 and four which showed a greater ability to modify the culture solution pH and a higher relative net root length were further evaluated in the field. pH values of the culture solution were taken daily for a period of six days without adjustment. Root and shoot lengths were measured and recorded after six days. The field experiment were laid out in RCBD, where the two main plots were either limed (4 t/ha) or not limed. The treatments were phosphorus (TSP) (0.06 t/ha), lime, phosphorus plus lime and control (-P, -L) and four cowpea cultivars; UOE-COWPEA-2, KVU 27-1, K-80 and KENKUNDE-1 were grown for a duration of four months. Soil samples were analyzed prior to and after planting. Plant height, total number of leaves per plant, total number of branches per plant, leaf area per plant, plant biomass, number of pods per plant, pod length, number of seeds per pod, 100 seed weight and seed yield per plant were assessed using standard procedures. The nine cowpea cultivars screened increase the pH of the culture solution as the days progressed. The increase in the culture solution pH could be due to cowpea cultivars secreting chelating agents that reduce H + thereby increasing the culture solution pH and reducing Al toxicity. UOE-COWPEA-4 cultivar grown at 185 µM Al was the most tolerant with higher relative net root length (75.6%) while UOE-COWPEA-1 cultivar was the most Al sensitve (63.7%). Lime increased the soil pH from 5.23 to 6.37 while both P+L increased soil P to the maximum of 28.93 mg/kg with K-80 cultivar. UOE-COWPEA-2 produced the greatest number of leaves (52) and number of pods per plant (59) while K-80 yielded the highest total seed weight per plant (42g) with KENKUNDE-1 recording the greatest number of seeds per pod (12) all under phosphorus plus lime treatment. UOE-COWPEA- 2, UOE-COWPEA-4, UOE-COWPEA-5, K-80 and KEN-KUNDE-1 cultivars that showed greater promise in modifying the pH, superior growth and yield attributes, could be grown in acidic soils. The cultivars can be tested further to establish their stability in alleviating acidity.

2025-01-01T00:00:00Z OMARE, BRIAN http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2552 2026-03-24T08:13:49Z 2025-01-01T00:00:00Z

PREDICTIVE MODELING OF CHILD MORTALITY IN MIGORI AND NYAMIRA COUNTIES USING INDIRECT METHODS OMARE, BRIAN Child mortality remains a critical public health challenge, particularly in developing countries like Kenya, where disparities in healthcare are stark across different regions. In counties such as Nyamira and Migori, persistent high rates of under-five child mortality demonstrate the need for more precise statistical predictions for and targeted interventions. Traditional methods for estimating child mortality, such as those derived from household surveys, are often hampered by issues like missing data and survivor bias, leading to inaccurate mortality estimates. This study sought to develop a comprehensive predictive model for under-five child mortality in Migori and Nyamira counties, Kenya, by incorporating temporal patterns and social determinants of health. Utilizing a retrospective cohort design, the study analyzed historical data from health records, census reports, and household surveys spanning 34 years (1989-2022). The analysis incorporated indirect estimation techniques to address data gaps and employed multiple linear regression, gradient boosting regressor, and spatio-temporal modeling to capture temporal and seasonal trends in child mortality. The multiple linear regression model was significant, explaining 89.9% of the change in neonatal mortality in Migori County and 80.6% of the variation in Nyamira County. Gradient boosting regressor performed optimally, accounting for 80.9% of the change in child mortality, indicating good predictive capability and suggesting that the chosen independent variables effectively capture the complexity of the response variable. Spatio-temporal modeling log-likelihood value of -111.87 indicated a relatively good fit, capturing the observed data well (pseudo-R-squared = 0.9415). Results indicated that infant mortality rates in both counties have fluctuated historically, with distinct seasonal trends influenced by factors such as disease prevalence and access to healthcare services. The temporal and seasonal analysis revealed that periods of increased respiratory complications and malaria prevalence corresponded with higher mortality rates. The study provides a methodological framework that can be adapted to other regions with comparable challenges. By addressing the limitations of traditional mortality estimation methods and leveraging advanced predictive modeling techniques, the study contributes to the ongoing efforts to improve child health outcomes in Kenya and beyond.

2025-01-01T00:00:00Z Paul, Anjeline Jepchumba Lagat, Grace Lutta, Samuel http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2540 2026-03-16T07:56:06Z 2025-09-01T00:00:00Z

Antibacterial Activity of the Tender Leaf, Stem Bark and Root Extracts of Guizotia Scabra against Streptococci Bacteria Using Bioassay Paul, Anjeline Jepchumba; Lagat, Grace; Lutta, Samuel Dental caries remains a major public health concern globally, largely attributed to bacterial pathogens such as Streptococcus mutans and Streptococcus sobrinus. The search for plant-based alternatives to synthetic oral care products has intensified in recent years. This study evaluated the antibacterial activity of ethanol and acetone extracts of Guizotia scabra leaf, stem bark and root against these key oral pathogens in comparison with commercial toothpastes. The ethanol leaf extract exhibited the highest activity against Streptococcus mutans with an inhibition zone of 5.0 mm (62.5%), followed by the root extract (3.0 mm, 37.5%) and stem extract (2.0 mm, 25.0%). Against Streptococcus sobrinus., the ethanol leaf extract recorded 4.0 mm (50.0%), root extract 2.5 mm (31.25%), and stem extract 1.5 mm (18.75%). Similarly, the acetone leaf extract demonstrated the highest inhibition against Streptococcus mutans (4.6 mm, 57.5%) and Streptococcus sobrinus. (4.3 mm, 53.75%), compared to the root extract (2.8 mm, 35.0%; 2.3 mm, 28.75%) and stem extract (1.9 mm, 23.75%; 1.7 mm, 21.25%). In contrast, commercial toothpaste brand 1 produced inhibition zones of 6.0 mm (75.0%) against both pathogens, while brand 2 showed 7.0 mm (87.5%) against Streptococcus mutans and 6.0mm (75.0%) against Streptococcus sobrinus. These findings demonstrate that Guizotia scabra extracts possess significant antibacterial activity, with leaf extracts showing the greatest potential. Although commercial toothpastes were more effective likely due to fluoride and other active ingredients. The results highlight the potential of Guizotia scabra as a natural complementary agent for dental caries prevention. Future research should explore its integration with fluoride or other natural antibacterials to enhance its efficacy. Keywords: Antibacterial Activity, Guizotia scabra, Streptococcus mutans & Streptococcus sobrinus bacteria, Bioassay.

2025-09-01T00:00:00Z Tallam, Jerop Otieno, Donald Fredrick Musili, Paul Mutuku http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2539 2026-03-13T12:17:33Z 2025-04-01T00:00:00Z

Investigation of the morphological variation among taxa to determine species diversity within Cyperus dives complex in East Africa: a review Tallam, Jerop; Otieno, Donald Fredrick; Musili, Paul Mutuku The Cyperus dives complex, a group within the Cyperaceae family, exhibits substantial morphological diversity across East Africa, presenting a valuable opportunity for studying species diversity and ecological adaptation. This investigation explored the morphological variation among taxa within this complex to assess species diversity and inform conservation strategies. Through a detailed examination of leaf shape, inflorescence structure, and reproductive features, the study reveals significant variations that delineate species boundaries and highlight adaptive traits. Findings from existing literature affirms the complex interplay between environmental factors and morphological characteristics, illustrating how different taxa are adapted to a range of ecological niches. The results demonstrates that morphological diversity within the Cyperus dives complex is influenced by habitat variability and evolutionary pressures. The study concludes that a comprehensive understanding of morphological variation is essential for accurate species identification and effective conservation management. This investigation contributes to the broader understanding of biodiversity in East Africa and supports the development of targeted conservation strategies to protect the diverse taxa within the Cyperus dives complex.

2025-04-01T00:00:00Z JEPTOO, LOYCE http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2536 2026-03-13T11:39:04Z 2025-01-01T00:00:00Z

PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPOSITION, ANTIBACTERIAL AND ALLELOPATHIC ACTIVITIES OF Achyranthes aspera AND Tagetes minuta LEAF EXTRACTS JEPTOO, LOYCE Antibiotic resistance remains a significant global health concern to date, putting at risk treatment options. As a result, treatments can be expensive and ineffective. It is therefore necessary to look for new options like using plant extracts with antimicrobial properties. Achyranthes aspera and Tagetes minuta have been traditionally used to treat various diseases in many communities and may possess antibacterial and allelopathic properties. Weeds cause more crop losses than insects, pests and diseases combined however their antimicrobial and allelopathic properties have not received much attention. This research aimed to determine the phytochemical composition, antibacterial and allelopathic activities of Achyranthes aspera and Tagetes minuta. Leaves were identified from the farm fields of University of Eldoret, collected, placed in sample collection bags, then transported to the laboratory. The leaves were washed, shade dried then ground to semi-powdery form. Extraction was conducted using sterile distilled water and ethanol. Extracts were tested against Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 51299, Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 700603, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853 and Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29213 by disc diffusion method in a Completely Randomized design with three replications. Ciprofloxacin was used as a positive control. Clear zones around the discs were recorded as inhibition zones in millimetres. Maize, millet, rice and sorghum seeds were dressed with extracts to establish their allelopathic activities by placing five surface sterilized seeds in each petri dish. Fifteen millilitres of extracts were used with distilled water set as a positive control. The design of the experiments was Completely Randomized with three replications. ANOVA was used to determine statistical significance at P ≤ 0.05. A. aspera and T. minuta extracts showed significant inhibitory effects with inhibition zones of ≥13 mm compared to ≥17 mm from ciprofloxacin. Bio-activity of extracts was highest on S. aureus followed by E. faecalis then P. aeruginosa then E. coli with least effect on K. pneumoniae. Plumule and radicle lengths of the test plants were also significantly affected with percentage reductions of ≥63%. Extracts were more detrimental on Rice followed by Maize then Sorghum with minimal effect on Millet. Millet recorded the highest germination percentage of 89.44% while rice had the lowest percentage at 67.78%, with Maize (87.50%) and sorghum (85.83%). Alkaloids, coumarins, flavonoids, phenols, quinones, saponins, tannins and terpenoids were present in extracts of both plants while Anthraquinones, glycosides and steroids existed only in A. aspera. This study concludes that A. aspera and T. minuta have remarkable antibacterial and allelopathic activities. There is therefore need to balance between controlling these plants which grow as weeds and maintaining them aimed at utilization for the development of newer antimicrobials and/or bio-control agents.

2025-01-01T00:00:00Z GITAU, KENNEDY KAMAU http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2535 2026-03-13T10:22:01Z 2025-01-01T00:00:00Z

ANTIOXIDANT AND ANTIDIABETIC PROPERTIES OF Mondia whitei ROOT EXTRACT IN STREPTOZOTOCIN-INDUCED DIABETIC WISTAR RATS GITAU, KENNEDY KAMAU The rising global prevalence of diabetes mellitus (DM) and its complications presents a major health challenge and is exacerbated by the lack of a definitive cure and the side effects of existing treatments, thus, highlighting the need for safer and more sustainable anti-diabetic agents. This study investigated Mondia whitei root extract as an alternative therapeutic option for DM. While traditional medicine suggests that M. whitei possesses antioxidant and anti-diabetic properties, scientific validation is limited. This research aimed to address this gap. Qualitative phytochemicals analysis of crude root extract of M. whitei was done and it’s in vitro antioxidant properties evaluated through 2,2- diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging activity and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assays. DM was induced in twenty-four male Wistar rats by a single intraperitoneal injection of 65 mg/Kg body weight (bwt) of streptozotocin (STZ). Animals were randomly assigned to five groups each containing six subjects; Group I (normal control, saline), Group II (diabetic control, saline), Group III (diabetic rats 200 mg/Kg bwt extract treatment), Group IV (diabetic rats 400 mg/Kg bwt extract treatment), and Group V (diabetic rats 100 mg/Kg bwt metformin treatment). Treatments were orally administered for 21 days. Fasting body weights and blood sugar levels were measured weekly. After 21 days, animals were sacrificed and their blood and liver tissue samples collected followed by serum lipid profile, liver and kidney function indices analysis. Liver malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were measured, and liver and plasma’s ferric-reducing capacity were evaluated. Statistical analysis was performed using R software, with paired Student’s t-test and ANOVA determining statistical significance at 95% confidence level. The qualitative phytochemical analysis of the crude M. whitei root extract revealed the presence of saponins, phenols, tannins, alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, coumarins, steroids, and terpenoids, while anthraquinones were not detected. The extract significantly scavenged DPPH radical and reduced ferric ions in vitro. M. whitei also showed significant hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic and significantly reduced serum gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP). M. whitei treatment also significantly increased liver and blood plasma capacity to reduce ferric ions as well as protected liver tissues from lipid peroxidation as indicated by significantly reduced levels of MDA. However, M. whitei showed no significant serum urea and creatinine levels decrease. In conclusion, the phytochemical-rich M. whitei root extract demonstrated anti-diabetic, antioxidant, hypolipidemic and hepatoprotective effects in STZ-induced diabetic rats, highlighting its potential as a natural candidate for the management of DM and its complications.

2025-01-01T00:00:00Z ARAMBE, MAMBO FIDELIS http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2534 2026-03-13T09:59:01Z 2025-01-01T00:00:00Z

IMPACT OF PARASITOLOGICAL, CLINICAL AND RENAL-HEPATIC BIOMARKER RESPONSES IN CHILDREN BELOW FIVE-YEAR OLD COINFECTED WITH MALARIA AND HIV IN WESTERN KENYA ARAMBE, MAMBO FIDELIS Malaria and HIV remain major causes of morbidity and mortality among children under five years in sub-Saharan Africa. Their co-infection presents a compounded health challenge, particularly in Western Kenya where Plasmodium falciparum transmission and HIV prevalence are both high. This study aimed to determine the burden of parasitemia and host biomarker responses in children aged below five years co-infected with P. falciparum and HIV. A cross-sectional case-control study involving 138 children aged 6–59 months was conducted at Kakamega County General Teaching and Referral Hospital. Parasitological diagnosis was done by microscopy and rapid diagnostic tests, while biochemical assays evaluated renal and hepatic function. Children co-infected with malaria and HIV were generally younger than those with HIV mono-infection, suggesting that mother-to-child acquired HIV predisposes to increased malaria susceptibility and severity in early life. The co-infected group had significantly higher median parasitemia (1,870 parasites/µL; range: 1,806–80,025), indicating intense transmission. Female children were more affected than males, suggesting possible gender-based differences in exposure, careseeking behavior, or immune response. Renal markers serum creatinine, urea, and blood urea nitrogen were significantly elevated in the co-infected group, reflecting early renal impairment likely linked to immune complex deposition and microvascular obstruction. Hepatic markers ALT, AST, GGT, total and direct bilirubin were also markedly raised, indicating hepatocellular injury and cholestasis. Total protein, albumin, and globulins were significantly higher in co-infected children, suggesting polyclonal B-cell activation and hypergammaglobulinemia driven by chronic immune stimulation. Among the biochemical markers, LDH, creatinine, and ALP exhibited high sensitivity and specificity in predicting organ dysfunction, while GGT, bilirubin, and total protein demonstrated high sensitivity but lower specificity. Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) analyses showed modest predictive value (AUC 0.43–0.69) for these markers in identifying renal and hepatic dysfunction. The findings suggest that combining hepatic and renal markers could enhance diagnostic accuracy in co-infected children. P. falciparum and HIV co-infection in children under five years significantly disrupts renal and hepatic function, reflecting compounded immune and metabolic stress. Elevated creatinine, bilirubin, and transaminases indicate potential for these markers to serve as adjunct diagnostic and prognostic tools in endemic areas. The study underscores the need to integrate biochemical assessment into pediatric malaria management, especially in HIV-prevalent regions. Routine monitoring of renal and hepatic function is recommended for timely identification of co-infected children at risk of severe outcomes. Further longitudinal and multi-center studies should investigate the mechanistic pathways underlying biomarker alterations and validate context-specific diagnostic thresholds for clinical use.

2025-01-01T00:00:00Z NYAMWAMU, CHARLES NYARANG’O http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2523 2026-03-13T07:39:41Z 2025-01-01T00:00:00Z

CHARACTERIZATION OF CASSAVA (Manihot esculenta Crantz) GERMPLASM IN KENYA NYAMWAMU, CHARLES NYARANG’O Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is a crucial income crop and staple food crop, providing substantial carbohydrates for millions globally and supporting small-scale farmers in Kenya. Due to incorrect characterization of the phenotypic and genetic materials available, the gene pool for cassava in Kenya are frequently overestimated or underestimated. Therefore, this study sought to characterize cassava germplasm in Kenya. Specific objectives were to; characterize and delimit cassava germplasm based on their phenotypic traits, investigate the genetic diversity among the cassava germplasm using molecular markers and also to determine the cyanide concentration levels in leaves, peels and pulp among cassava germplasm in Kenya. A total of 131 cassava accessions were collected from 7 major purposefully selected cassava growing Counties in Kenya. Each cassava accession was represented by a single plant. This plant was divided into 3- 10 pieces and planted in single rows. Plants from this main plot were collected and planted in three sites. In each plot, three rows of five plants were planted. Data collection on phenotypic traits was done at 3, 6, 9 and 12 months. Twenty-one qualitative and four quantitative phenotypic data were collected and subjected to multivariate analysis. At a statistical significance of p≤0.05, the data was subjected to cluster analysis and dendogram construction. From the main plot, apical leaf samples from 40 proportionately sampled accessions were taken for evaluation of genetic diversity and population structure using start-codon-targeted (SCoT) molecular markers. Cluster analysis and dendogram development was done to establish the accessions' genetic variability. A total of 32 samples were processed for cyanide content analysis using picrate paper and spectrophotometric methods. In a field survey, 32 cassava sample accessions were randomly collected from various farms in Migori County for cyanide determination. Phenotypically, a dendrogram generated categorized these accessions into four clusters with Cluster 1, 2, 3 and 4 containing 72.5%, 16.0%, 3.1%, and 8.4% of the genotypes, respectively. Out of the 25 phenotypic traits assessed, 11 principal components accounted for 71.58% of the genetic variation. A total of 119 fragments were amplified, with 89.9% being polymorphic, indicating moderate genetic diversity. The dendrogram grouped the accessions into two clusters at a 0.35 genetic similarity coefficient. Moderate genetic variation among the accessions was revealed by SCoT markers. The study also revealed significant variations in cyanide levels across different cassava parts and accessions. The spectrophotometric method recorded average cyanide levels of 5.89 mg/L, 7.42 mg/L and 8.20 mg/L in leaves, peels and pulps respectively while the picrate paper method showed 3.13 mg/L, 5.44 mg/L, and 7.97 mg/L. The highest cyanide concentration was found in Nyarkadera leaves (26.93 mg/L), Kazanzwara peels (17.82 mg/L) and Nyatanga pulps (26.93 mg/L). The lowest levels were in Nyatanga-002, Nyakanyamkago, and Kasukali leaves (0.40 mg/L), Kasukali peels (1.19 mg/L) and Mzungu pulps (0.40 mg/L). Moderate positive correlations (r=0.547 and r=0.570) between cyanide concentrations in leaves and peels, and a strong positive correlation (r=0.936) in pulps was established. Thus, cassava germplasm in Kenya exhibits moderate diversity, with molecular data revealing clearer differentiation among this germplasm. In addition, the germplasm shows significant cyanide variation necessitating integrated genetic and biochemical breeding approaches. Thus, these results may assist breeders and farmers in optimizing cassava germplasm utilization, ultimately contributing to food security.

2025-01-01T00:00:00Z CHACHA, PAUL JACKSON http://41.89.164.27:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2518 2026-03-13T07:05:59Z 2025-01-01T00:00:00Z

VECTOR AUTOREGRESSION MODELING OF MALARIA INCIDENCE AND MORTALITY RATES IN MIGORI COUNTY, KENYA CHACHA, PAUL JACKSON Malaria prevalence in poorer countries has been a persistent public health concern, disproportionately affecting vulnerable populations such as children and pregnant women. Despite notable progress in scaling up malaria control interventions in Kenya, malaria incidence rates continue to vary widely across counties, with endemic regions like Migori County experiencing persistent challenges. This study aimed to identify key factors associated with malaria incidence and mortality in Migori County using secondary data from the Kenya National Health Management System. Multiple statistical models, including regression, Vector Autoregression (VAR), and Vector Autoregression with Exogenous Variables (VARX), were applied to examine the temporal dynamics of malaria. While malaria incidence rates declined over time, mortality rates remained relatively stable. Regression results indicated that insecticide-treated net usage and effective treatment significantly influenced both incidence and mortality rates. However, model residuals showed substantial variability and signs of poor fit, highlighting the need for improved model specifications. The VAR model revealed issues of residual autocorrelation, while the VARX model, which incorporated exogenous variables, showed improved but still imperfect performance. Bayesian VAR (BVAR) models provided consistent findings across methodologies but also underscored ongoing challenges in modeling temporal malaria data accurately. Therefore, this study concludes that while current models offer valuable insights, they remain limited in capturing the full complexity of malaria dynamics. It recommends methodological enhancements, such as using advanced techniques like Generalized Method of Moments (GMM) or machine learning, conducting rigorous residual diagnostics, and incorporating environmental, socioeconomic, and behavioral variables. Expanding the dataset across regions and timeframes could also improve the robustness and generalizability of future research aimed at informing more effective malaria control strategies.

2025-01-01T00:00:00Z